In Part I we left off a Mexico that had just become independent from Spain. But the new budding country faced faced a significant challenge: internal disagreement on its system of governance. This led to a period of instability, with numerous governments rising and falling over the subsequent four decades. Amidst this turmoil, Antonio López de Santa Anna, a general who played a key role in the overthrow of the previous regime, rose to become the nation’s dominant political and military figure.

1836-1845

Under Santa Anna’s leadership, Mexico experienced two significant military defeats. In 1836, Mexico was compelled to relinquish its claim to Texas, which then existed as an independent nation for nine years before its annexation by the United States in 1845.

Mexican- American War 

1846-1848

A border dispute with Texas ignited the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). American forces landed at Veracruz and marched inland, ultimately capturing Mexico City. The defeated nation was then forced to cede a vast amount of its northern territory to the United States, amounting to nearly half of its total land. This area eventually formed the US states of California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, and Wyoming.

In 1854, a coalition of liberal reformers ousted Santa Anna from the presidency. Their aims included diminishing the power of the Catholic Church and the military, as well as limiting the Church’s land ownership. These reformers drafted a new constitution in 1857, which, among other things, guaranteed freedom of speech and the press. 

Conservative Mexicans, particularly Church officials and military members, opposed this constitution, leading to a civil war. After four years of conflict, the liberal faction emerged victorious, and their exiled leader, Benito Juárez, returned to Mexico City to assume the presidency.

The French-Mexican War

1861 -1867

In 1861, facing severe financial difficulties after years of internal conflict, Mexican President Benito Juárez declared a two-year moratorium on foreign debt. Mexico was invaded by France in 1862, ostensibly to collect on defaulted loans, but with the underlying goal of installing a French-controlled ruler. This led to the installation of Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria as Emperor Maximilian I, supported by the Catholic Church, conservative elites, and some indigenous groups. 

5 de Mayo, 1862

Despite an initial French defeat at the Battle of Puebla (Cinco de Mayo), they eventually prevailed, establishing Maximilian’s monarchy in Mexico City’s National Palace. While some historians credit Maximilian with liberal reforms and a genuine interest in Mexican welfare, others criticize his administration for exploiting Mexican resources for French benefit, particularly Napoleon III’s plans for mining and cotton cultivation.

Maximilian wanted a limited monarchy with a congress, a plan too liberal for conservatives and unacceptable to liberals who supported Juárez’s republic. The US, occupied by its Civil War, recognized Juárez but couldn’t help until 1865. France’s costly Mexican venture became unpopular. After the US Civil War, Secretary of State Seward’s diplomacy led to French withdrawal. Despite dwindling support and losses, Maximilian stayed in Mexico but was captured and executed in 1867. Benito Juárez was reelected president after the monarchy’s fall and continued his reforms until his death in 1872. His reforms included secularizing Mexico, limiting the Catholic Church’s property, and placing education and marriage under state control. 

To this day, Benito Juárez, a Zapotec man, is admired as being the first indigenous president of Mexico who devoted his life in helping his people. 

The Porfiriato

1876-1910

A few years later, Porfirio Díaz rose to power, serving as Mexico’s president for most of the years between 1876 and 1910 – a period now known as the Porfiriato. Initially a liberal like Juárez, Díaz modernized Mexico with US investment, building railroads and telephone lines. However, he soon ruled as a dictator, disregarding the people’s will and rigging elections to maintain the presidency. 

During the Porfiriato, the wealthy prospered while poor workers lost land and saw their incomes decrease, fueling widespread anger at Díaz’s grip on power. Francisco Madero, an opponent, ran against him in the 1910 presidential election. Díaz had Madero jailed before the vote and declared himself the winner. Madero fled to Texas and called for an uprising.

Under Finance Secretary José Yves Limantour (1893-1910), Mexico achieved fiscal stability through foreign investment, free trade, and balanced budgets. However, rising food costs hurt the poor. The 1907 US panic caused a drop in demand for Mexican metals, leading to a Mexican depression (1908-1909) and discontent. Mexico’s weak banking system made it vulnerable. Industrialization grew in the Northeast, especially Monterrey, with factories and smelters benefiting from US rail links. By the 1920s, US companies like ASARCO heavily invested in Mexican industry. 

Modernizers also reformed education, emphasizing secular public schools and values promoting industrialization, culminating in the opening of the National University in 1910.

The Mexican Revolution

1910-1920

Responding to Madero’s call, rebel leaders like Pancho Villa in the north and Emiliano Zapata in the south rose up. Díaz resigned, and Madero became president in 1911. However, conservatives opposed him, and he was assassinated by military leader Victoriano Huerta, who seized power. Madero’s former allies, Obregón, Villa, and Carranza, united against Huerta, forcing him out. But Carranza then declared himself president, leading to renewed conflict. 

Obregón eventually allied with Carranza against the more radical Villa and Zapata. Carranza, backed by the US, eventually had Villa and Zapata assassinated, though they are now folk heroes for fighting for the poor. Mexico adopted a new constitution in 1917, enacting liberal reforms like land redistribution, workers’ rights, and government control of schools. However, the fighting persisted for years, costing about 10% of Mexico’s population and causing mass emigration, many to the US.

1920-1940

Between 1920 and 1940, Mexico focused on consolidating the gains of its revolution and building a more stable nation. Revolutionary generals held the presidency, centralizing state power and implementing reforms outlined in the 1917 Constitution, such as land redistribution and labor rights.

The 1920s saw continued, though diminishing, violence and political instability as revolutionary factions vied for power. Key events included the presidencies of Álvaro Obregón, who initiated some land reform and improved the financial situation, and Plutarco Elías Calles, who founded the National Revolutionary Party (PNR), the precursor to the PRI, which would dominate Mexican politics for decades.  

The 1930s were largely shaped by President Lázaro Cárdenas (1934-1940). He significantly accelerated land reform, nationalized the oil industry in 1938, and strengthened labor unions, fulfilling many of the revolution’s socio-economic promises. This period is considered a high point of radical reform in post-revolutionary Mexico.  

Culturally, the post-revolutionary period saw a push to create a unified Mexican identity, incorporating indigenous heritage. Artists and intellectuals played a key role in this nation-building project.  

Economically, the country navigated external shocks like the US economic downturn and began to see some industrial growth, particularly in the north.

Mexico during World War II

Following the sinking of Mexican oil tankers in the Gulf by German U-boats, the Potrero del Llano and the Faja de Oro, Mexico declared war on the Axis powers on May 30, 1942. While many Latin American nations eventually sided with the Allies, Mexico, along with Brazil, stood out by sending troops to fight overseas. The most renowned Mexican fighting unit was Escuadrón 201, the Aztec Eagles. This was the first Mexican military unit trained for overseas combat, and they served alongside the U.S. Fifth Air Force in the liberation of the Philippines during the final year of World War II, demonstrating Mexico’s commitment to the Allied cause beyond its borders.

Following World War II (1939-1945), Mexico’s economy grew rapidly. Government initiatives led to the construction of roads and factories, drawing many rural workers to cities for better-paying jobs. For the first time, some who had grown up in poverty could earn a good living, though many remained poor. The ruling PRI prioritized industrial growth and business prosperity but paid less attention to struggling workers. To maintain power, the PRI implemented regulations and intimidated opposition, leading to fear among reporters who might criticize the party.

The Mexican Economic Miracle

1945 -1970

Mexico’s Economic Miracle, a period of substantial and rapid economic expansion from the 1940s to the early 1970s, was largely propelled by the inward-looking strategy of import substitution industrialization. The post-World War II era provided an initial boost as Mexico supplied vital raw materials, notably oil, to the Allied nations, leading to a near tripling of national income. 

Subsequently, the government actively fostered domestic industries through protectionist measures, while simultaneously investing heavily in crucial infrastructure projects. This state-led development fueled significant growth in the manufacturing sector, attracting foreign investment and spurring rapid urbanization as people sought opportunities in burgeoning industrial centers. 

These are some photos of Mexico from the 1950’s. 

Prudent fiscal policies contributed to economic stability, and the sustained growth led to improved living standards for a segment of the population, including the emergence of a middle class. The relative political stability under the dominant PRI was also seen as a factor supporting economic progress. Furthermore, investments in public education contributed to a more skilled workforce. Although the benefits of this “Miracle” were not evenly distributed (Wealth distribution remained unequal, and poverty persisted in rural areas) and the ISI strategy had its drawbacks, this era remains a significant period of economic transformation in Mexican history.

Tlatelolco massacre

1968

The Tlatelolco massacre, a horrific event in Mexico’s history, occurred on October 2, 1968, in the Tlatelolco section of Mexico City. It involved the Mexican Armed Forces firing upon unarmed students from major universities, including UNAM and IPN, who were peacefully protesting in the Plaza de las Tres Culturas. This massacre was a brutal act of repression by the PRI government, part of the larger “Dirty War” against political and social opposition, and it took place just ten days before the opening of the 1968 Summer Olympics. 

While the government and media claimed the military was provoked by gunfire from protesters, declassified documents suggest government snipers were involved. The exact death toll remains contested, with US archives documenting 44 deaths, but eyewitness accounts and other estimates suggest hundreds, possibly 300 to 400, were killed. Additionally, over a thousand protesters were reported arrested. This tragic event deeply scarred the Mexican psyche and exposed the authoritarian nature of the ruling party.

Economic Crisis 

1976, 1982

Mexico faced severe economic crises in 1976 and 1982. The 1976 crisis was due to overspending and borrowing by the government, leading to high inflation, capital flight, and a peso devaluation. The 1982 crisis was more severe, triggered by falling oil prices, soaring global interest rates, and continued heavy borrowing. Mexico nationalized its banks and declared it couldn’t pay its foreign debt, causing massive peso devaluations, hyperinflation, widespread economic contraction, and a “Decada Perdida” (Lost Decade) of development. Both crises were marked by significant austerity measures and reliance on international loans.

Earthquake 

1985

The grave economic situation was exacerbated by an Earthquake that was 8.1 on the Ritcher Scale that struck Michoacan, Mexico causing enormous devastation in Mexico City. The number of people that perished is between 6,500 to 30,000 on different accounts. Many earthquake victims never received the promised aid, including funds contributed by foreign countries. This mishandling of relief efforts sparked widespread public anger and deepened the existing distrust in the PRI. Consequently, the long-dominant party began to face unprecedented and serious electoral challenges, marking a turning point in Mexican politics.

President Ernesto Zedillo (1994–2000) and NAFTA (North American Trade Agreement) 

1994

In 1995, President Ernesto Zedillo confronted Mexico’s severe peso crisis, alongside ongoing public unrest and a military presence due to the 1994 Zapatista uprising in Chiapas. The Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN), largely composed of indigenous Maya people, launched an uprising in Chiapas. They protested the newly implemented North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which removed tariffs between Mexico and the United States, arguing that it ignored the needs of the poor and landless by favoring the wealthy and business interests. 

Despite this initial turmoil, Zedillo’s implementation of austerity measures and structural reforms helped stabilize the economy and regain investor confidence. The United States quickly intervened to avert a collapse, buying pesos and providing $50 billion in loan guarantees. The peso stabilized, and by 1996, the economy was growing again, with Mexico repaying all US loans ahead of schedule in 1997.

Zedillo also oversaw crucial political and electoral reforms. Following the heavily disputed 1988 election, the Federal Electoral Institute (IFE) was created in the early 1990s to ensure fair elections, ultimately weakening the PRI’s long-standing grip on power.

In 1994, Mexico was rocked by a series of crises. That January, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN), largely composed of indigenous Maya people, launched an uprising in Chiapas. They protested the newly implemented North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which removed tariffs between Mexico and the United States, arguing that it ignored the needs of the poor and landless by favoring the wealthy and business interests. NAFTA is credited by some with boosting Mexico’s middle class, as a Tufts University study reportedly indicated it cut the average cost of basic goods by up to 50%.

President Vicente Fox Quesada

(2000–2006)

President Vicente Fox Quesada made history as the first president in over 70 years not from the PRI, marking Mexico’s democratic shift. His term prioritized strengthening democracy, increasing government transparency, and combating corruption. He also worked to maintain economic stability, attract foreign investment, and implement social programs to reduce poverty. However, lacking a legislative majority, Fox faced challenges in passing significant reforms, and ongoing issues like crime remained prominent.

President Felipe Calderón Hinojosa (2006–2012) and the Mexican Drug War

President Felipe Calderón Hinojosa‘s presidency was largely defined by his aggressive “War on Drugs,” deploying 50,000 troops against cartels. These cartels, smuggle illegal drugs from South America through Mexico into the United States. However, this military intervention only intensified drug-related violence, leading to a staggering 60,000 murders during his six-year term.

Economically, he navigated the 2008 global recession by implementing counter-cyclical measures and oversaw a significant infrastructure investment program. Despite efforts to maintain economic stability and increase competitiveness, the pervasive drug-related violence often overshadowed his other achievements.

In 2012, Enrique Peña Nieto of the PRI was elected president, returning the party to power after a 12-year absence. His administration began with the Pacto por México, a cross-party alliance that led to the passage of significant reforms in areas like education, banking, and telecommunications. This pact notably opened Mexico’s energy sector to private and foreign investment, ending the state-owned Pemex monopoly. However, Peña Nieto’s term was overshadowed by the 2014 disappearance of 43 Ayotzinapa students, an event that tragically highlighted Mexico’s deep-seated problems with violence, corruption, and impunity.  

President Enrique Peña Nieto 

(2012–2018)

In 2012, Enrique Peña Nieto of the PRI was elected president, returning the party to power after a 12-year absence. His administration began with the Pacto por México, a cross-party alliance that led to the passage of significant reforms in areas like education, banking, and telecommunications. This pact notably opened Mexico’s energy sector to private and foreign investment, ending the state-owned Pemex monopoly. However, Peña Nieto’s term was overshadowed by the 2014 disappearance of 43 Ayotzinapa students, an event that tragically highlighted Mexico’s deep-seated problems with violence, corruption, and impunity.  

President Andrés Manuel López Obrador 

(2018–2024)

On July 1, 2018, Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO), leader of the National Regeneration Movement (MORENA) and the Juntos Haremos Historia coalition, was elected president with over 53% of the vote. Sworn in on December 1, 2018, AMLO became Mexico’s first leftist president in decades, known for his populist stance, anti-corruption focus, and social welfare programs aimed at reducing poverty and inequality.  

AMLO’s presidency has been marked by efforts to curb violence and stimulate economic growth, alongside navigating challenges like the coronavirus pandemic and managing relations with the United States, including signing the US-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA). Despite his long-standing advocacy for the marginalized and criticism of neoliberal policies, his administration has faced scrutiny over its governance approach. In the June 2021 midterm elections, AMLO’s coalition retained a simple majority in Congress, though they fell short of the two-thirds supermajority needed for more sweeping constitutional changes.

President Claudia Sheinbaum

(2024–)

Claudia Sheinbaum began her historic six-year term as Mexico’s first female president on October 1, 2024, following a landslide victory. Her administration, representing the MORENA party, has largely focused on continuing the agenda of her predecessor, Andrés Manuel López Obrador, while also introducing her own initiatives. Early in her term, Sheinbaum has overseen the passage of numerous constitutional reforms, some inherited from the previous administration, including a significant judicial overhaul that will involve popular elections for judges. She has also announced a new industrial policy aimed at economic growth and investment, and has been actively engaged in diplomatic discussions, notably with the United States regarding border issues and trade. While maintaining high approval ratings, Sheinbaum faces considerable challenges, particularly the ongoing issue of violence and organized crime, which remains a top concern for many Mexicans.

After reading the brutal history of Mexico, I am in awe of how strong they are as people to maintain their beautiful unique culture in spite of everything. All the best to their first female president… She has handled the volatile situations that have risen thus far in her term with patience, diplomacy and intelligence. 

Credits:

1. Wikipedia: History of Mexico
2. EBSCO, Research Starters: Topics related to the History of Mexico
3. Encyclopedia Brittanica: History of Mexico
4. Mexico, Enchantment of the World Series. Liz Sonneborn. 2017. Children’s Press.